Prehistoric Cultures
Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic cultures of Andhra — the archaeological foundation of Telugu land.
Chapter Snapshot
Andhra's prehistoric record covers all four ages — Old Stone, Middle Stone, New Stone and Iron/Megalithic. Robert Bruce Foote (1863) is the father of Indian prehistory and worked extensively on Andhra sites.
Palaeolithic → Mesolithic → Neolithic → Megalithic
Robert Bruce Foote
1863 — Giddalur, Prakasam district
Krishna, Godavari, Penna, Sagileru, Manair
Moderate (2–3 Qs)
Robert Bruce Foote (1863)
Nagarjunakonda
Neolithic South Deccan (Utnur, Kupgal, Palavoy)
Black-and-Red Ware (BRW)
Ash-mounds are volcanic → WRONG (they are burnt cattle-pen dung)
- Robert Bruce Foote discovered the first Palaeolithic tool at Pallavaram (1863) and extended the survey to Giddalur, Nagarjunakonda and Karempudi.
- Karempudi (Guntur) yielded a continuous sequence from Lower to Upper Palaeolithic — a rare stratified site.
- Nagarjunakonda (Krishna valley) is unique for having remains of every prehistoric age.
- Betamcherla and Muchchatla Chintamanu Gavi caves show Upper Palaeolithic bone tools.
- Microliths — small geometric tools (triangles, trapezes, lunates) — appear in the Nallamala–Erramala hill belt.
- Chintakunta (Kurnool) preserves rock paintings of hunting scenes.
- First evidence of animal domestication (cattle, sheep) and burial of the dead.
- Sunkesula (Kurnool) is a classic sand-dune microlith site.
- Ash-mounds at Utnur, Palavoy and Kupgal mark seasonal cattle-pen burnings — a distinctive southern Neolithic feature.
- Polished stone axes, saddle querns, black-and-red pottery become common.
- Ragi, horse-gram, green-gram cultivated; cattle, sheep, goat domesticated.
- Nagarjunakonda Neolithic layer produced circular huts and burials with grave goods.
- Iron tools — sickles, ploughshares, arrowheads — signal an agricultural revolution.
- Burial types: cist, dolmen, cairn-circle, urn, sarcophagus, menhir.
- Black-and-Red Ware (BRW) is the type-pottery; often placed with the dead.
- Nagarjunakonda, Yeleswaram, Ramapuram (Kadapa) and Peddabankur (Telangana) are classic sites.
- Directly precedes the Satavahana historic period — sets the stage for Andhra state formation.
| Age | Approx. Date | Tool Material | Andhra Sites | Key Features |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lower Palaeolithic | c. 2 mya – 100,000 BCE | Quartzite hand-axes, cleavers (Acheulian) | Giddalur, Nagarjunakonda, Karempudi, Yerragudi | Hunter-gatherers; cave & open sites |
| Middle Palaeolithic | c. 100,000 – 40,000 BCE | Flake tools of jasper, chert | Renigunta, Nallamala hills, Yerragudi | Levallois technique; smaller tools |
| Upper Palaeolithic | c. 40,000 – 10,000 BCE | Blade & burin industries | Betamcherla, Muchchatla Chintamanu Gavi | Bone tools appear; ostrich egg-shell beads |
| Mesolithic | c. 10,000 – 4000 BCE | Microliths (geometric) | Renigunta, Giddalur, Nagarjunakonda, Sunkesula | Rock paintings at Chintakunta; domesticated animals |
| Neolithic | c. 3000 – 1500 BCE | Polished stone axes, ash-mounds | Nagarjunakonda, Piklihal, Utnur, Palavoy, Ramapuram | Settled farming; cattle-pen ash-mounds |
| Megalithic (Iron Age) | c. 1000 – 300 BCE | Iron tools, Black-and-Red Ware | Nagarjunakonda, Yeleswaram, Ramapuram, Peddabankur | Cists, dolmens, cairn circles; burial pottery |
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Palaeolithic tools are chipped & rough. Neolithic axes are ground & polished with a haft.
Microliths = tiny geometric tools. Megaliths = large stone burial monuments.
Utnur is a Neolithic ash-mound only. Nagarjunakonda spans all four ages.
PMNM — Palaeolithic · Mesolithic · Neolithic · Megalithic
Remember the four ages in order: Big rough tools → Tiny microliths → Polished farming tools → Iron & burial stones.
- 1863 — R. B. Foote begins Indian prehistory at Pallavaram; extends to Giddalur.
- Nagarjunakonda — only Andhra site with all four ages.
- Utnur / Palavoy — Neolithic ash-mounds (cattle-pen burns).
- Chintakunta — Mesolithic rock paintings.
- Megalithic BRW pottery precedes the Satavahanas.
Four ages with dates & typical tools
R. B. Foote — Giddalur discovery
Ash-mound sites (Utnur, Palavoy, Kupgal)
Megalithic burial types (cist, dolmen, cairn, menhir)
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