Timeline

Constitutional Amendments

Curated high-yield Amendments — each with reason, articles/schedules affected, key changes and landmark importance.

1

First Amendment (1951)

Government: Jawaharlal Nehru (INC)

Reason: To overcome the Champakam Dorairajan (1951) and Romesh Thappar (1950) judgments.

Articles affected:Art. 15Art. 19Art. 31Art. 85Art. 87Art. 174Art. 176Art. 341Art. 342Art. 372Art. 376

Schedules affected:Ninth Schedule (new)

Key Changes

  • Added Art. 15(4) — special provisions for SEBCs, SCs, STs.
  • Added grounds of restriction under Art. 19(2): public order, friendly relations, incitement to offence.
  • Introduced Art. 31A and 31B; created the Ninth Schedule protecting land reform laws from judicial review.

Landmark importance: First test of Parliament's amending power over FRs; enabled affirmative action & land reforms.

Related Judgments

Sankari Prasad v. UoI (1951) (1951)

Yes — 'law' in Art. 13 excludes constitutional amendment. — First interpretation of amending power.

7

Seventh Amendment (States Reorganisation) (1956)

Government: Jawaharlal Nehru (INC)

Reason: Give effect to the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, on linguistic lines (Fazl Ali Commission).

Articles affected:Numerous provisions of Parts V, VI, VIII, XI

Schedules affected:First, Second, Fourth, Seventh

Key Changes

  • Abolished Part-A, Part-B, Part-C classification of States; created 14 States and 6 UTs.
  • Provision for common High Court for two or more States.
  • Reorganised UT administration.

Landmark importance: Basis for linguistic reorganisation and creation of modern State map.

24

Twenty-fourth Amendment (1971)

Government: Indira Gandhi (INC)

Reason: Nullify Golak Nath v. State of Punjab (1967).

Articles affected:Art. 13Art. 368

Key Changes

  • Affirmed Parliament's power to amend any part of the Constitution, including FRs.
  • Made Presidential assent to Constitutional Amendment Bills mandatory.

Landmark importance: Prelude to Kesavananda Bharati (1973); paved for basic-structure doctrine.

Related Judgments

Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973)

Upheld 24th; introduced basic-structure doctrine. — Watershed judgment.

42

Forty-second Amendment ('Mini-Constitution') (1976)

Government: Indira Gandhi (INC) — during Emergency

Reason: Sweeping constitutional revision (Swaran Singh Committee).

Articles affected:Many — 31C, 39, 51A (new), 74, 77, 105, 118, 145, 226, 228, 311, 312, 323A, 323B, 356, 368 among others

Schedules affected:Seventh

Key Changes

  • Added the words 'Socialist', 'Secular', 'Integrity' to the Preamble.
  • Inserted Part IV-A: Fundamental Duties (Art. 51A).
  • Inserted Part XIV-A: Tribunals (Arts. 323A, 323B).
  • Curtailed judicial review; made DPSPs supreme over FRs (later struck down).
  • Transferred subjects Education, Forests, Weights & Measures, Protection of wild animals, Administration of Justice to Concurrent List.

Landmark importance: Called 'Mini-Constitution'; largely reversed by 43rd and 44th Amendments after Emergency.

Related Judgments

Minerva Mills v. UoI (1980) (1980)

Struck down; balance of FRs & DPSPs = basic structure. — Limited 42nd Am's excesses.

44

Forty-fourth Amendment (1978)

Government: Morarji Desai (Janata Party)

Reason: Post-Emergency corrective; restore civil liberties.

Articles affected:Art. 19Art. 20Art. 21Art. 22Art. 38Art. 74Art. 77Art. 83Art. 103Art. 105Art. 123Art. 132

Key Changes

  • Removed 'Right to Property' from Fundamental Rights (deleted Art. 19(1)(f), 31); made it a legal right under Art. 300A.
  • Substituted 'armed rebellion' for 'internal disturbance' as ground for Emergency (Art. 352).
  • Made Cabinet's written recommendation mandatory for Emergency proclamation.
  • Made enforcement of Arts. 20 & 21 non-suspendable even during Emergency.
  • Restored HC's writ jurisdiction under Art. 226.
  • Introduced 6-monthly parliamentary review of Emergency.

Landmark importance: Cornerstone of post-Emergency democratic restoration.

52

Fifty-second Amendment (Anti-Defection Law) (1985)

Government: Rajiv Gandhi (INC)

Reason: Curb political defections after 1967 wave of 'Aaya Ram, Gaya Ram' switching.

Articles affected:Art. 101Art. 102Art. 190Art. 191

Schedules affected:Tenth (new)

Key Changes

  • Added Tenth Schedule providing disqualification for defection.
  • Disqualification decided by Speaker/Chairman.

Landmark importance: First serious attempt to institutionalise party discipline.

Related Judgments

Kihoto Hollohan v. Zachillhu (1992)

Upheld with judicial review available. — Balanced legislative privilege and judicial oversight.

61

Sixty-first Amendment (Voting Age) (1989)

Government: Rajiv Gandhi (INC)

Reason: Empower the youth.

Articles affected:Art. 326

Key Changes

  • Reduced voting age from 21 to 18 years for Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assembly elections.

Landmark importance: Brought largest ever expansion of Indian electorate; deepened democracy.

73

Seventy-third Amendment (Panchayati Raj) (1992)

Government: P.V. Narasimha Rao (INC)

Reason: Constitutionalise rural local self-government (based on L.M. Singhvi Committee, 1986).

Articles affected:Added Part IX (Arts. 243–243O)

Schedules affected:Eleventh (new)

Key Changes

  • Three-tier Panchayat structure (Village, Intermediate, District).
  • Direct elections at all three levels every 5 years; State Election Commission for conduct.
  • Reservation for SCs, STs and women (1/3 seats, later expanded).
  • Gram Sabha; Finance Commission every 5 years (Art. 243-I).
  • 29 functional subjects in Eleventh Schedule.

Landmark importance: Transformed rural governance; deepened grassroots democracy.

74

Seventy-fourth Amendment (Municipalities) (1992)

Government: P.V. Narasimha Rao (INC)

Reason: Constitutionalise urban local self-government.

Articles affected:Added Part IX-A (Arts. 243P–243ZG)

Schedules affected:Twelfth (new)

Key Changes

  • Three types of Municipalities: Nagar Panchayat, Municipal Council, Municipal Corporation.
  • Ward Committees, DPCs and MPCs for planning.
  • 18 functional subjects in Twelfth Schedule.
  • Reservations similar to 73rd; direct elections; SEC & State FC.

Landmark importance: Constitutional recognition to urban local bodies as third tier of government.

86

Eighty-sixth Amendment (Right to Education) (2002)

Government: A.B. Vajpayee (NDA)

Reason: Give effect to Unni Krishnan (1993); universalise elementary education.

Articles affected:Art. 21AArt. 45Art. 51A(k)

Key Changes

  • Inserted Art. 21A — free and compulsory education for children 6–14 years.
  • Amended Art. 45 for early childhood care up to age 6.
  • Added 51A(k) — parental duty to provide educational opportunities.

Landmark importance: Elementary education became a fundamental right; enabled RTE Act, 2009.

91

Ninety-first Amendment (2003)

Government: A.B. Vajpayee (NDA)

Reason: Strengthen anti-defection law and cap ministerial size.

Articles affected:Art. 75Art. 164Art. 361B

Schedules affected:Tenth

Key Changes

  • Council of Ministers (Union/State) capped at 15% of Lok Sabha/Assembly strength.
  • Deleted 'split' exception (para 3) in Tenth Schedule.
  • Disqualified members barred from remunerative political post.

Landmark importance: Plugged loopholes in defection law; downsized bloated ministries.

97

Ninety-seventh Amendment (Co-operatives) (2011)

Government: Manmohan Singh (UPA)

Reason: Guarantee democratic functioning of co-operatives.

Articles affected:Art. 19(1)(c)Added Part IX-B (Arts. 243ZH–243ZT)Art. 43B

Key Changes

  • Made forming co-operative societies a fundamental right under Art. 19(1)(c).
  • Constitutional status to co-operatives with elections, audit, transparency.

Landmark importance: Part IX-B provisions applying to State co-operatives were struck down in Rajendra N. Shah v. UoI (2021) for lack of State ratification; provisions upheld only for multi-State co-operatives.

101

One Hundred and First Amendment (GST) (2016)

Government: Narendra Modi (NDA)

Reason: Introduce Goods and Services Tax — 'one nation, one tax'.

Articles affected:Art. 246AArt. 269AArt. 279AArt. 366Art. 368

Schedules affected:Sixth, Seventh

Key Changes

  • Concurrent taxing power on GST to both Union and States (Art. 246A).
  • Inter-State GST (IGST) — collected by Centre, apportioned (Art. 269A).
  • Constitutional status to GST Council (Art. 279A).
  • Compensation to States for revenue loss for 5 years.

Landmark importance: Biggest indirect tax reform since independence; unified national market.

103

One Hundred and Third Amendment (EWS Reservation) (2019)

Government: Narendra Modi (NDA)

Reason: Provide reservation to Economically Weaker Sections in general category.

Articles affected:Art. 15Art. 16

Key Changes

  • Inserted Art. 15(6) and 16(6) enabling up to 10% reservation for EWS.
  • Applies to admissions and appointments; independent of existing SC/ST/OBC quotas.

Landmark importance: First reservation solely on economic criteria; upheld 3-2 in Janhit Abhiyan v. UoI (2022).

104

One Hundred and Fourth Amendment (2020)

Government: Narendra Modi (NDA)

Reason: Extend reservation for SC/ST in legislatures; discontinue Anglo-Indian nomination.

Articles affected:Art. 334

Key Changes

  • Extended reservation for SCs and STs in Lok Sabha & State Assemblies by 10 more years (upto 25 January 2030).
  • Ended Anglo-Indian nomination in Lok Sabha (Art. 331) and State Assemblies (Art. 333).

Landmark importance: Reduced representation asymmetry; ended a colonial-era community-specific quota.

105

One Hundred and Fifth Amendment (SEBC lists) (2021)

Government: Narendra Modi (NDA)

Reason: Restore State power to identify SEBCs, undone by Maratha reservation ruling (Jaishri Patil, 2021).

Articles affected:Art. 338BArt. 342AArt. 366(26C)

Key Changes

  • Clarified that States and UTs may identify their own Socially and Educationally Backward Classes.

Landmark importance: Restored federal balance in identifying SEBCs.

106

One Hundred and Sixth Amendment (Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam) (2023)

Government: Narendra Modi (NDA)

Reason: Reservation of women in Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies.

Articles affected:Art. 330AArt. 332AArt. 334AArt. 239AA

Key Changes

  • One-third reservation of seats for women in Lok Sabha, State Assemblies and Delhi Assembly.
  • Also within SC/ST reservation.
  • Comes into effect after next census and delimitation.

Landmark importance: Historic step toward gender parity in legislatures.